Dostoyevsky ‘Notes from Underground’ Critique Essay

â€Å"Notes from Underground† was published in 1864 as a feature presentation of his first 1860 issue â€Å"The Epoch†. â€Å"Notes from Underground† was written by the author during a time when he faced many challenges in his life. Dostoyevsky faced failure in the publishing of his first journal â€Å"Time†, his financial position was becoming weaker and embarrassing. Moreover, his wife was dying and his conservatism was eroded leading to a decline in his popularity with the liberal reading Russians and consequently, he became the focus of attack by the radical and liberal press (Fanger 3). Therefore, this research seeks to find how the author presents the aspect of â€Å"underground man† and how he approached Charles Darwin’s thoughts of man in â€Å"Origin of the†¦show more content†¦By the time the author had completed writing â€Å"Notes from Underground† the society had moved to liberalism and abandoned reasoning and en lightenment (Frank 35). This is clearly represented in this novel since by the end, as the author concluded that there was more to man than enlightenment and reasoning. The underground man is an educated, literate, forty year old financially stable man, who, lives in a modern society. As the novel progresses, the underground man remembers the days he used to work without any affection. The man lives now alone in a place described as unattractive where he is completely cut off from friends and family (Fanger 5). This situation provides an indication of the troubles underground man is going through for they do not arise from work, money problems or the lack of social interaction opportunities. This man has money, is educated and has plenty of social interaction opportunities but he’d rather remain in his solitude, Dostoevsky shows that in all respect the man has reached enlightenment (Frank 36). The problems of underground man are all concerned with what is happening to him from the inside. This man is suffering from a disease that arises from his lack of feeling completely healthy. Though the novel has depicted many medical discussions on doctors, liver problems, medicines, the real disease is emotional distress. The entire first section of the book is about how emotionally troubled the undergroundShow MoreRelatedEnglish Literature- an Episode in the Life of an Author5918 Words   |  24 Pagesirrational universe. Jean Paul Sartre’s â€Å"no exit† Presents three people locked into a situation from which there is no escape and who eventually realize that â€Å"hell is other people.† Existentialism and absurd theater present alienation-The loss of sustaining religious belief. -The sense of anxiety and guilt. -The growing conviction that life was at bottom meaningless. Central to the existentialism. Critique of the traditional idea that within each individual has an â€Å"essence† A universal, defining characteristics

Characters Representing Major Ideas and Themes Free Essays

A Raisin In the Sun by Lorraine Handovers, the Younger family Is faced with many big issues and themes that affect African Americans in the 1 ass’s. These overlying themes appear in the form of individuals In the play, even for those characters that play only minor roles. George Morison, Wily Harris, and Mr. We will write a custom essay sample on Characters Representing Major Ideas and Themes or any similar topic only for you Order Now . Liners each represent different obstacles that the Youngster’s must overcome in order to follow their dreams and trust what is in their hearts. This is Handlebars way of telling her readers to not be afraid to follow their dreams, even If there are obstacles In your path, because If they don’t then they will be worse off than ever before. George Morison is the living example of assimilation culture and it’s destructive tendencies toward your native culture and heritage. He dresses like whites, acts like whites, and puts more value on money than on thoughts and culture. Beneath witnesses this transformation occurring in her brother, and it angers her. She feels pressured by society to assimilate. George has merged with the American White Majority Ideals and has no difficulty in doing so, which deeply rubles Beneath, who believes that if you lose your heritage, you in turn lose yourself. George gets incredibly aggravated whenever Beneath mentions how she feels on the topic of Assimilation, and finally George can’t listen any longer to her and snaps, â€Å"Let’s face it, baby, your heritage is nothing but a bunch of raggedy- eased spirituals and some grass huts! (Handovers, 81) Beneath is trying to find herself by rediscovering her culture, while George Is separating himself from his as much as possible. This huge difference between the two Is the mall reason behind Beneath slice of him and love of Sagas, who fully embraces his culture. He helps her overcome modern society’s expectations and dance to her own drumbeat, therefore giving her a way to find herself. The pressure to assimilate into society and become â€Å"acceptable† to others is shown in Beneath, but has already won over George. Even though Wily Harris never even steps onto the stage, his dark presence hangs over the family, as he took the $6,500 that was left of Big Walter’s money. He did the taking, and left the Younger â€Å"token†, representing people who exploit others who are desperate and helpless. Wily and others like him take advantage of people like the Younger who have no experience or way of getting help if they fall into a bad situation, but will trust someone to help them out because they are desperate enough to try to achieve their dreams anyway. In stealing the money, Wily Harris destroys Walter’s last hope for a good future. Walter explains after he hears the bad news of the stolen money how he thinks the world works and what he has concluded from the experience: â€Å"Life is just like it is. Who gets and who don’t get†¦ Mama, you know it’s all divided up†¦ Between the takers and the â€Å"token†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Mom of us always getting token†¦. I’ll say one thing for old Wily Harris. He’s taught me something. He’s taught me to keep my eye on what counts in this world. Yeah- Thanks, Wily! † (Handovers, 141) By this point, Walter has realized that his dream Is not going to happen, and Wily has left him devastated. But amidst all these distraught what really counts, not money, not social status, but love, his family, his wife, and his son. The kind of love that made big Walter work to death for his family. This realization pulls him together, and finally becomes a man and gives Mama and Ruth their dream of owning a house. It seems that people like Wily Harris gravitate to people in poor circumstances with big dreams and little experience. Walter overcomes this disastrous event, but the memory that he could have done better in business and made something of himself will probably haunt him forever. Mr.. Liners is Just one man, but he represents thousands of people, the white majority, and their intense prejudice against blacks and other minorities. Prejudice and racism was still everywhere in the sass’s, even though slavery was gone. The views that people like Mr.. Liners harbor are keeping the Younger and other minority groups oppressed and unable to rise up to their full potential. Liners expresses his frustration with the Younger after Walter refuses his offer for the first time, â€Å"What do you are going to gain by moving into a neighborhood where you Just aren’t wanted†¦ People can get awful worked up when they feel that their whole way of life and everything they’ve ever worked for is threatened. â€Å"(Handovers, 199) Liners says the one thing that the white majority has been thinking. He tells the Younger very simply that they are not wanted. This kind of hostility has nothing to do with any f these peoples personalities, Jobs, or morals, i t is solely because they are not white and therefore are deemed not good enough to be with whites. The family overcomes this prejudice by asking Mr.. Liners back. Walter tells him that they will move into the house, and they will be good neighbors, therefore giving the Whites the first punch if they want to take it, as he will do nothing to them, because he states that the family has a right to live there Just as much as anyone else. Prejudice affected the Younger through the voice of one man, but through the minds of many. But they anally overcome their fear of it and move into the house at Closure Park. Throughout this play, Handovers is constantly using symbolism, and not only does she do it through objects, but through people as well. She shows us how all of these complicated issues are gathered together in one tiny apartment and how this can destroy dreams Just by stepping into the room that is the sass’s. By using characters like George, Wily, and Mr.. Liners, we get a real sense of what people are willing to do to achieve their goals, be accepted, and keep things how they have always been. The Younger overcome each of these with their love and their dreams. How to cite Characters Representing Major Ideas and Themes, Papers

Evaluation of Lewis Model-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignment

Question: Outline and Evaluate the value of the Lewis Model to Understanding Growth in a Labour Surplus Economy. Answer: Introduction This essay discusses on dual sector Lewis model, which focuses on the migration of labour between two sectors. Two sectors described in the Lewis model are capitalist sector and subsistence sector. One is rural agricultural sector and other is urban manufacturing sector. The characteristics of subsistence sector are low wage and unlimited supply of labour (Lewis 1954). On the other hand, there is labour shortage in capitalist economy and hence, wage rate is higher. Capitalist or the industrial sector absorbs the surplus labour of the rural sector for sustainable development. Wage rate in the Lewis model is determined by the average productivity in the agriculture. Moreover, Lewis model tells that surplus labour disappears from the traditional sector with the integration of the traditional economy with modern industrial economy. Economic growth and labour supply In the subsistence sector or the D sector has unlimited supply of labour. Hence, the wage rate in this sector is less than the wages in C or the industrial sector. The modern sector develops absorbing labour from traditional sector. In the agricultural sector, marginal products become zero after a certain point; recruiting labour beyond that point causes total output to fall. Hence, the surplus labour exists in the traditional sector, as shifting one unit of labour does not reduce output of that sector. On the other hand, wage rate is high due to shortage of labour. Bargaining power of workers through trade union keeps the wage rate at higher level (Athukorala, Prema?chandra and Zheng 2017). However, according to Lewis, wages in the industrial sector remains constant and the capitalists earn surplus. The surplus labour migrates to the modern industrial sector in search of job. The disguised unemployed workers get job in the industrial sector. Consequently, output in the modern sector expands and surplus generated. The surpluses are further reinvested in the economy. As industrial sectors have both backward and forward linkages, output growth in one sector leads to the increase in demand in the other related sectors. In the view of Naud (2013), speed of expansion depends on the rate of investment and capital formation in the economy and in that sector. Although wage is constant in the urban areas, this is higher compared to the rural wage. Higher wage induces agricultural workers to migrate to the urban areas in search of jobs. In this way, a modern sector expands with increment in employment to restore economic growth. Greater employment implies greater aggregate demand, further increase in national output and growth of the economy. Figure 1: Production function in the traditional sector (Source: created by author) The above figure shows that the traditional sector employing labour more than up to the highest point of the total production curve. At the highest point of the total productivity curve, marginal product of labour is zero. Further increase in labour in the production process, reduces total output due to inefficiency of the labour and absence of resource. Hence, after point L1, transfer of any labour improves productivity of the traditional sector and the employment of that worker can improve productivity of the scarce sector (Lewis, Ethan and Peri 2014). This migration of labour leads to autonomous expansion in the demand, government purchases and the expansion of different sectors of the economy. Discussion on the sectors of the model Two sectors in the Lewis model are capitalist (C) and the subsistence sector (D). The characteristics of the traditional D sector are low wage, unlimited supply of labour and existence of the small-scale industries along with agricultural sectors. Existence of disguised unemployment or the surplus labour is significant feature of this sector. Market is less competitive due to absence of product differentiation and the market meets only the local community needs. Another feature is that the marginal productivity (MP) of labour is less than the subsistence wage level. On the other hand, the capitalist (C) or the modern sector is characterised by shortage of labour and hence higher wage for labour. However, wage is fixed at a level as assumed by Lewis. Other important features are free and competitive market. Demand is greater for the specialised labour. This modern sector expands absorbing surplus labour of the D sector. Generally large scale industries and MNCs operate in this sector. Surpluses generated in this sector are reinvested for capital formation and expansion of the sector. Labour in this sector is employed at the point MP = real wage (Yang et al. 2016). Consequence of migration of labour Developing countries are traditionally agricultural based economies. In the view of Fei and Ranis, three stages can occur due to migration of labour in a developing economy. At stage 1, MPL = 0 SW (Ratha, Soonhwa and Seyed 2015). Marginal productivity of labour is less than the subsistence level of wage at this stage when disguised unemployment exists in the agricultural sector in absolute terms. At stage II, when the modern sector starts to absorb the surplus labour, subsequently the wage rate in that sector starts to rise. At this stage, 0 MPL WS and surplus labour starts to shrink. At the stage III, when rate of migration in the modern sector increases due to higher wage, labour supply in the agricultural sector falls below L1. Marginal productivity of the labour becomes greater than subsistence wage and hence, wage rate in the traditional sector starts to rise (Ehrenberg, Ronald and Robert 2016). As the wage rate raises in the traditional D sector, standard of living of the wor kers increases and leads to the rising aggregate demand for the consumer goods and several industrial products. Rising demand for industrial products causes expansion of the C sector. Deficit of labour in the C sector is thus filled by the D sector through migration of labour. On the other, with increasing congestion of workers in the urban areas, demand for food and agricultural products increases. The workers buy the food at market price. Initially, demand for agricultural product is locally bound and from the stage II of turning point, the demand from products rises from urban areas and for export to the international market. Third stage is the Lewis turning point, when agricultural labour are commercialised. Hence, agricultural sector expands also along with the modern industrial sector. However, a wage gap exists between skilled and unskilled workers in the urban area. Economic benefits and values of migration of labour In the view of Nathan (2014), as labour and capital are complementary to each other, surplus labour and low capital reduce investment in the agricultural sector. Economic benefit in the economy is realised when employment increases, investment in the economy rises to expand different sectors in the economy. Increase in employment in one hand expands the output a sector by using additional labour in production process. Additional labour is productive as far as marginal productivity is rising to complement capital. Migrant labour contributes to the flexibility of labour market in a labour surplus developing country. Young migrants are better educated and skilled compared to workers nearly retirement. Any sector can use human capital in more efficient way with young workers. In the words of Lewis (2013), young workers contribute to the economy in terms of productivity, taxes and social contributions in comparison to the benefits they receive from government. Young people can be easily m otivated and encouraged for innovation in the product market. Innovation enhances marginal productivity of capital or labour. Economic growth of Chinese economy over the periods 1965 -2009 can be attributed to the development of non agricultural sector, which is driven by rapid migration of labour and capital formation. China has a Lewisian Dualistic economic development over a long period of time. Chinese economy was agrarian economy predominantly. Surplus labour existed in that sector with low productivity. During 1978, rural liberalisation released labour from rural economy to promote market economy. Economic activities increase with the expansion of labour as seen in the Chinese economy. Increase in supply of labour makes labour market competitive in the market economy to make wage rate at competitive level. Workers want to get themselves employed at minimum wage where there is surplus labour in the economy. Low wage induces firms to employ more labour. As a result, non agricultural sector develops rapidly. Chinese economy envisaged rapid economic growth since 1990 due to increase in total factor produc tivity (Ercolani and Zheng 2011). When productivity of one sector boosts, ability of this sector swells to supply in the international market after meeting domestic needs. As a result export increases to enhance the export sector. A structural change occurs in the economy. Economic reform of China facilitated the economic transition. GDP grows as a result of increasing economies of scale. Rise in employment reduces poverty level of the developing economy. As described earlier, third turning point leads to the commercialisation of the agricultural sector. Commercialisation raises the demand for food products in the urban market. However, accumulation of labour results in the unemployment in the sector due to existence of skill gap. However real wage of the existing employees increases. Conclusion This above essay has described that migration of labour leads to the greater trade in products and services by expanding non agricultural sector of the economy. This paper has examined the impact of the Lewis model on the economy. Transition of an economy starts with the migration of labour from traditional agriculture based economy to the modern industrial economy. Modern sector expands by absorbing surplus labour of the agricultural or traditional sector. Surplus workers move to the urban economy in search of jobs in the industrial sector for higher wage. Wage level in the urban sector decreases with increase in labour supply. Wage rate in the agricultural sector also increases due to commercialisation of the agriculture. Both the agricultural and industrial sector develops with absorption of surplus labour. However, there is argument regarding equalisation of wages as the wage gap exists in the labour market due to presence of skilled and unskilled labour. Surplus labours in the t radition economy are employed in the modern sector and for first few units output rises rapidly. Structural changes occur in the economy due to transition from agricultural to industrial economy. References Athukorala, Prema?chandra, and Zheng Wei. "Economic Transition and Labour Market Dynamics in China: An Interpretative Survey of the Turning PointDebate."Journal of Economic Surveys(2017). Ehrenberg, Ronald G., and Robert S. Smith.Modern labor economics: Theory and public policy. Routledge, (2016). Ercolani, Marco, and Wei Zheng. "An Empirical Analysis Of ChinaS Dualistic Economic Development: 19652009".Mitpressjournals.Org. https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/ASEP_a_00108 (2011). Lewis, Ethan, and Giovanni Peri.Immigration and the Economy of Cities and Regions. No. w20428. National Bureau of Economic Research, (2014). Lewis, W. Arthur. "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor". The Manchester School (1954). 22: 13991. Lewis, W. Arthur.Theory of economic growth. Vol. 7. Routledge, (2013). Nathan, Max. "The wider economic impacts of high-skilled migrants: a survey of the literature for receiving countries."IZA Journal of Migration3, no. 1 (2014): 4. Naud, Wim. "Entrepreneurship and economic development: Theory, evidence and policy."Browser Download This Paper(2013). Ratha, Dilip, Soonhwa Yi, and Seyed Reza Yousefi. "Migration and development."Routledge Handbook of Immigration and Refugee Studies1, no. 3 (2015): 260. Yang, Jin, Hui Wang, Songqing Jin, Kevin Chen, Jeffrey Riedinger, and Chao Peng. "Migration, local off-farm employment, and agricultural production efficiency: evidence from China."Journal of Productivity Analysis45, no. 3 (2016): 247-259.